As a group of organic salts consisting entirely of ions (anions and cations), ionic liquids (ILs) have shown great promises as a potential alternative to conventional volatile toxic organic solvents due to their unique and attractive properties including negligible vapor pressure, nonflammability, high chemical/thermal stability, low toxicity and favorable conductivity. These attractive features of ILs have made them as popular candidates in the wide applications of various fields including organic synthesis, extraction/separation, electrochemical analysis, catalysis and chemical sensors. Protein assay has long been a crucial issue in bio-sciences and other related fields. In this respect, the applications of ionic liquids to perform protein assays, including protein stability/activity investigations, protein extraction and isolation/purification, protein crystallization, separation of protein species and their detections, have received increasing attentions in the past few years. This can be attributed to the fact that ionic liquids provides a novel and highly efficient reaction medium, but meanwhile, they also serve as efficient participants in the various chemical/biological reaction processes. The recent applications of ionic liquid-based extraction systems in protein separations and assays are depicted in the present mini-review, including protein extraction in the presence of assistant extractants, direct extraction, aqueous two-phase extraction systems, emulsion extraction systems, crystallization of proteins in the presence of ionic liquids and ionic liquid-based solid-phase extraction systems. Contents
1 Introduction
2 IL-based extraction system in protein separation and assays
2.1 Assistant extraction system
2.2 Direct extraction system
2.3 Aqueous two-phase extraction system
2.4 Emulsion extraction system
2.5 Protein crystallization in the presence of ionic liquids
2.6 IL-based solid-phase extraction system
3 Conclusions and perspectives

Dynamic personalities and structural heterogeneities of proteins are essential for understanding their proper functions. However,structure determination of dynamic/heterogeneous protein is limited by current technologies, such as X-ray crystallography and electron microscopy (EM) single particle analysis, both of which generally require averaging from thousands of different proteins based on an assumption that these thousand proteins are structurally identical. Electron tomography (ET) provides a tool for visualization of a unique biological object from a series of tilted viewing angles. Conventional reconstruction methods using whole micrographs provide tools for 3-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of a large biological object, such as bacteria, and sections of cell. However, for small and low-symmetry proteins, these methods have limited power in reconstruction resolution. Recently, Ren’s group reported a so-called individual-particle electron tomography (IPET) method, in which, a “focused electron tomography reconstruction (FETR)” algorithm was proposed to improve the reconstruction resolution by decreasing the image size so that it only contains a single-instance protein. IPET method requires no pre-given initial model or average of multiple molecules, but also can tolerate certain levels of measuring tilt errors. In this review, we demonstrate the IPET/FETR method in detail to share this current progress with the researchers in China. We believed IPET is a new and robust approach to determine the structure of a single/individual molecule that is a basis for studying the dynamic character and structural heterogeneity of macromolecule via comparison and structural analyses of structures determined from different individual macromolecules. Contents
1 Introduction
2 IPET method and FETR algorithm
2.1 Generating simulated cryoET data
2.2 Basic tools for image processing
2.3 Focused electron tomography reconstruction (FETR) algorithm
3 Validation of focused ET reconstruction method by real experimental data
3.1 3D reconstruction of a human IgG antibody by negative-staining ET
3.2 3D reconstruction of a high-density lipoprotein by cryoET
4 Conclusion and outlook

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs)-based controlled-release system has the characteristics of good biocompatibility, cell targeting property, accurate responsive release, and eliminating undesirable drug release before reaching the target site, which has become a hot topic among many researchers in recent years. This article discussed the advantages of MSNs-based controlled-release system. Meanwhile, based on different stimuli-responsive characteristics, this article systematically analyzed and summarized various MSN-based controlled-release systems which was modified with different responsive switches, and further discussed the switching mechanisms of these devices, including redox-responsive controlled-release systems, light-responsive controlled-release systems, pH-responsive controlled-release systems and biological molecule-responsive controlled-release systems. The prospects and directions of this research field are also briefly addressed. Contents
1 Introduction
2 MSNs-based controlled-release system
3 Non-functionalized MSNs-based controlled-release
4 Functionalized MSNs-based controlled-release
4.1 Redox-responsive controlled-release
4.2 pH-responsive controlled-release
4.3 Light-responsive controlled-release
4.4 Temperature-responsive controlled-release
4.5 Magnet-responsive controlled-release
4.6 Biology-responsive controlled-release
4.7 Multiple responsive controlled-release
4.8 MSNs-based multifunctional systems
5 Outlook

Pesudorotaxanes/rotaxanes are an important class of supramolecules in the field of supramolecular chemistry. They can adjust their conformations under external stimuli, such as redox process, pH change, light, and solvent, and hence have been widely applied in the fabrication of molecular machines. Recently, researchers realized that these special structural features can be utilized to control drug release and enhance the ability of drugs to enter membranes, making these supramolecules promising candidates for drug carriers. In this paper, the progress of the application of pesudorotaxanes/rotaxanes in drug delivery systems over the past decade has been reviewed. In particular, two kinds of drug carriers, viz. pesudorotaxane-based mechanized silica nanoparticles (MSNP) and host-rotaxanes, are emphasized. MSNP was firstly designed and synthesized by Stoddart and Zink et al. Within MSNP, the assembly and de-assembly processes of the attached pesudorotaxanes endow silica nanoparticles with a new function——controlled drug release. The host-rotaxane carriers were fabricated by Smithrud et al. With the aid of shuttling processes in rotaxanes, host-rotaxanes hold a significant ability to penetrate biomembranes, which can be applied to aid transmembrane drug delivery. The advantages and disadvantages of these two kinds of drug carriers are discussed, either. Finally, the further development of pesudorotaxane/rotaxane-based drug carriers is prospected. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Application of pesudorotaxanes/rotaxanes in drug transport
2.1 Pesudorotaxanes as nanovalves in mechanized silica nanoparticles
2.2 Host-rotaxanes as drug carriers
3 Conclusion and outlook

The unique structure of basal planes and edges in graphene endows graphene specific properties, such as the much higher heterogeneous electron transfer rate, capacitance, local density of states and structural defects, functional groups of edges than basal planes. These inherent features of graphene, which have a great role in promoting its electrochemical performance, are the embodiment of the edge effect. This paper introduces the influence of edge effect on the electrochemical performance of graphene, gives a review and prospect of graphene with different morphology characteristics, such as graphene nanoflakes, nanosheets, nanoplatelets, nanowalls, nanofibers, nanoribbons, and quantum dots, applying in the electrochemical biosensing field. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Edge effect of electrochemical performances: from graphite to graphene
2.1 Edge effect of electrochemical performances in graphite
2.2 Edge effect of electrochemical performances in graphene
3 Two- and quasi two-dimensional graphene-based electrochemical biosensors
4 One- and zero-dimensional graphene-based electr-ochemical biosensors
5 Conclusion and prospect

Polystyrene resin has been widely employed as carriers of transition metals due to its excellent physical and chemical properties. The obtained polystyrene-immobilized transition metal complexes generally exhibit high catalytic activity, enhanced reaction selectivity and good reusability, and thus have been attracting great attention for improving the efficiency of hydrosilylation and hydrogenation reactions in recent years. In addition, modifying polystyrene by coordinating-group-containing compounds could significantly enhance the coordination ability to metal ions. Consequently, the resultant catalysts usually provide better catalytic performance. In view of this, the current review summarizes the novel progress for the synthesis and application of polystyrene-immobilized transition metal complexes as catalysts in hydrosilylation and hydrogenation. The preparation method, catalytic performance and the related mechanism are introduced. Firstly, the amine-, phosphine-, mercapto groups-, and unsaturated hydrocarbon-modified polystyrene immobilized transition metals for catalytic hydrosilylation are described. Secondly, polystyrene immobilized transition metals (including Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru, Au nanoparticles, Cr, etc.) for catalytic hydrogenation are described, with the emphasis on the complexes of Pd and Rh. At last, the development trend of this kind of catalysts is suggested. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Application of polystyrene immobilized transition metals as catalysts for hydrosilylation
2.1 Polystyrene immobilized transition metal catalysts modified by amine
2.2 Polystyrene immobilized transition metal catalysts modified by phosphine
2.3 Polystyrene immobilized transition metal catalysts modified by mercapto groups
2.4 Polystyrene immobilized transition metal catalysts modified by unsaturated hydrocarbon
2.5 Others
3 Application of polystyrene immobilized transition metals as catalysts for hydrogenation
3.1 Polystyrene-Pt catalysts
3.2 Polystyrene-Pd catalysts
3.3 Polystyrene-Rh catalysts
3.4 Polystyrene-Ru catalysts
3.5 Polystyrene-Au catalysts
3.6 Polystyrene-Cr catalysts
3.7 Polystyrene-Au/Pd catalysts
4 Conclusion and outlook

Graphene, as a novel material, is recognized as a type of potential and attractive materials for the preparation of high performance fuel cell catalysts due to its unique structure and properties, such as ultra thin layer structure, ultra high surface area, and excellent conductivity, etc. Recent investigation showed that doped or surface modified graphene can be a potential candidate for the fuel cell catalyst by choosing different preparation process and varying the precursors. In this paper, we reviewed the research works in recent years for the application of doped and modified graphene as the cathode catalysts for fuel cells, including the direct use of doped graphene as catalyst for oxygen cathodic reduction, and the use of doped or surface modified graphene as support for the preparation of high performance cathode catalyst. Although the exact active center on these doped graphene for oxygen reduction reaction is still under debate, the succeed catalysis in both alkaline and acid solution opened up a brand new approach for the development of non-precious catalysts in fuel cells. With the improvement of catalytic performance and further understanding of structure-activity relation, we prospected that the application of doped-graphene in fuel cells will be broadened. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Direct use of modified graphene as cathode catalysts for oxygen reduction
2.1 Doped graphene and their performance as cathode catalysts
2.2 Surface modified graphene catalysts
3 Modified graphene as support for the preparation of cathode catalysts
3.1 Pt-based metals/modified graphene catalysts
3.2 Non-noble metals/modified graphene catalysts
4 Conclusions and outlook

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), as a classical layered transition-metal dichalcogenide, have attracted much attention in recent years because of their wide utilization in catalytic hydrogenation, lubrication and photoelectricity fields. Nano- or micro-meter scaled materials exhibit many excellent capabilities in virtue of their special microstructures. Therefore, it is particularly significant to give impetus to the research of inorganic layered compounds through the synthesis experience of nano-/micro-meter sized MoS₂ materials with specific morphologies and structures. Based on the recently numerous reports about nano- or micro-meter scaled MoS₂ and their applications in the relevant fields, this review focuses on the latest progress in chemical synthetic methods of MoS₂ micro- or nano-particles and MoS₂-based composites with different morphology and property, including thermal decomposition, sulfidation of molybdenum oxides, hydrothermal/solvothermal and solution routes, as well as other novel combined physical-chemical techniques. The effects of various reaction conditions on the morphology and performance of MoS₂ products have been discussed, and the characteristics of various methods have also been commented. In addition, the applications of MoS₂ used as unsupported or supported catalysts in hydrodesulphurization of fossil fuel have been introduced, and the developing tendency and future prospect of MoS₂ materials are projected. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Properties and structure of MoS₂
3 Preparation of MoS₂
3.1 Thermal decomposition
3.2 Sulfidation of molybdenum oxides
3.3 Hydrothermal/solvothermal process
3.4 Liquid precipitation
3.5 Other chemical synthesis methods
4 Application of MoS₂ in hydrodesulphurization
4.1 Supported MoS₂ catalysts
4.2 Unsupported MoS₂ catalysts
5 Summary and perspective

Hierarchical ordered porous carbon (HOPC) which include macro-mesopore, micro-mesopore, meso-mesopore and macro-meso-micropore carbons, exhibited great potential in the fields of catalysis, adsorption, energy storage and electrochemistry due to the advantages of combined multiple porous structure. By now, various preparation methods for hierarchical ordered porous carbon have been reported. Among them, templating method which could control pore structure and adjust pore dimension is the most effective. For templating method, soft-templating method was simple, timesaving, low cost and less pollution and has been widely employed in recent years. Soft-templating preparation method for hierarchical ordered porous carbon, especially evaporation induced self-assembly (EISA) method and structure control strategy are reviewed. Block copolymer is a kind of soft-template which plays a role as pore-forming. In this paper, interaction of block copolymers with carbon precursors for the production of hierarchical porous structure is especially reviewed. Factors influencing the pore structure which include dual template, post activation, carbon source and molecular structure of soft template are summarized. Strategy for the control preparation of hierarchical ordered porous carbon via soft templates is proposed. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Type of hierarchical ordered porous carbons
2.1 Macro-mesoporous carbon
2.2 Micro-mesoporous carbon
2.3 Meso-mesoporous carbon
2.4 Others
3 Structure control of hierarchical ordered porous carbons
3.1 Influence of soft-templating agents
3.2 Influence of carbon sources
3.3 Influence of temperature
4 Outlook

Chiral phase-tranfer catalysis plays an important role in modern asymmetric synthesis and organic synthesis chemistry. This review focuses on the progress of chiral quaternary phosphonium salts as phase-transfer catalysts reported in recent years, and their application in asymmetric catalytic reactions, including Henry reaction, hydrophosphonylation reaction, alkylation reaction, Michael addition reaction, Mannich reaction, aldol reaction, protonation reaction and amination reaction. Steric and electrical effects of these catalysts are emphasized, future prospects for development of chiral quaternary phosphonium salts are also described in this article. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Early works
3 Chiral P-spiro tetraaminophosphonium salts and diaminodioxaphosphonium salts
3.1 Asymmetric Henry reaction
3.2 Asymmetric hydrophosphonylation reaction
3.3 Asymmetric alkylation reaction
3.4 Asymmetric Michael addition reaction
3.5 Asymmetric Mannich reaction
3.6 Asymmetric aldol reaction
3.7 Asymmetric protonation reaction
4 Chiral tetraalkylphosphonium salts
4.1 Asymmetric amination reaction of β-keto esters and benzofuranones
4.2 Asymmetric Michael addition reaction of 3-aryloxindoles
4.3 Asymmetric Mannich reaction of 3-aryloxindoles
5 Conclusion and outlook

Bulk heterojunction polymer solar cells (PSCs) have attracted much attention in recent years due to their advantages of easy fabrication, simple device structure, low cost, light weight, and capability to be fabricated into flexible devices. However, the maximum power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the present PSCs is still much lower than that of silicon solar cell and need to be further improved for the demand of commercial production. Recent studies indicated that the incorporation of silole (silacyclopentadiene) moiety could effectively improve the crystalline and energy level (HOMO/LUMO) of the corresponding donor-acceptor conjugated polymer, thus remarkably increased the PCE of device. The present review summarizes and analyzes the progress silole-containing congjugated polymer photovoltaic donor materials in the past few years. Some issues to be addressed and hotspots to be further investigated are also presented and discussed. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Silole-containing congjugated polymer photovoltaic donor materials
2.1 2,3,4,5-Substituted silole-containing polymer photovoltaic donor materials
2.2 Dibenzosilole-containing polymer photovoltaic donor materials
2.3 Dithienosilole-containing polymer photovoltaic donor materials
2.4 [JP3]Silaindacenodithiophene-containing polymer photo-voltaic donor materials
3 Concluding remarks

Polymeric ionic liquids (PILs) are the polymers, which contain at least one ionic center, similar by composition to the structure of commonly used ionic liquids, as a covalently bonded part of their constitutional repeating unit, with promising applications in many fields. In this paper, recent advances of polymeric ionic liquids (PILs) that can be probably used as ionic conductors, sorbents and separation, dispersants and stabilizer, and catalysts are reviewed. The development of PILs as ionic conductors for lithium batteries and solar cells is introduced in detail. Finally, the research trends of the PILs are prospected. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Ionic conductors
2.1 Electrolyte of lithium/ lithium-ion batteries
2.2 Electrolyte of dye-sensitized solar cells
3 Sorbents and separation
3.1 Sorbents of carbon dioxide
3.2 Gas separation
3.3 Stationary phase
4 Stabilizer
4.1 Stabilization of carbon nanotubes
4.2 Stabilization of metal particles and polymer
5 Catalysts
5.1 Functionalized polymeric ionic liquids catalysts
5.2 Supported polymeric ionic liquids catalysts
6 Conclusions and outlook

Prodrugs represent the compounds that can convert to the bioactive drugs under in vitro or in vivo environment after administration, which have received intensive and extensive attention in the past decades. Among them, several of clinical successes have been achieved, disclosing the promising future of prodrugs. As compared with the conventional nanoscaled drug delivery system, prodrug provides the merits of the high and constant drug efficiency, high stability in blood circulation and low burst release. Nonetheless, critical challenges remain in the development of prodrugs aiming at clinical benefit, mainly including the inability of controlled and targeted drug release. Prodrugs that can selectively release the carried drug specific to microenvironment of lesion site emerges as a powerful strategy to address the above issues. These prodrugs are structurally polymeric and the mechanism of the design is generally based on the physical (pH, temperature) or biological (enzyme, glutathione concentration) stimulus. Herein, we present an overview of the recent work on stimuli-responsive anticancer polymeric prodrugs, including pH-sensitive, redox sensitive and enzyme digestion, based on the domestic and international research progress. In addition, recent advances and future directions in the development of stimuli-responsive and polymeric prodrugs are also included. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Stimuli-responsive polymeric prodrugs
2.1 pH-sensitive polymeric prodrugs
2.2 Temperature-sensitive polymeric prodrugs
2.3 Redox-sensitive polymeric prodrugs
2.4 Enzyme-sensitive polymeric prodrugs
2.5 Other polymeric prodrugs
3 Conclusion and outlook

Due to the effectiveness of hyperthermia on significant enhancement of drug cytotoxicity, thermo-chemotherapy has become an extraordinarily encouraging approach to optimize cancer therapy by combing hyperthermia and chemotherapy. Moreover, a great number of in vitro/vivo researches and random clinic trials have confirmed its effectiveness, which is affected greatly by thermal dose. Meanwhile, hyperthermia is also a critical factor on triggering drug release of thermal-sensitive drug delivery. Accordingly, it is an optimal design that thermal-sensitive drug carriers integrate with local hyperthermia to realize the targeted thermo-chemotherapy. Therefore, the thermal-sensitive drug carriers displayed a unique potential and applied prospection on targeted thermo-chemotherapy, which contributed to increasing drug concentration, enhancing drug cytotoxicity, lowering effective dose and alleviating side effects further. In this review, the research situation of thermal-sensitive drug carriers on chemotherapy and its advantage on thermo-chemotherapy were summarized briefly as the applied background. In addition, the biological rationales and research situation of thermo-chemotherapy were expounded. Based on aforementioned researches, the review focused on the research situation of the thermal-sensitive drug delivery on thermo-chemotherapy. Furthermore, the review highlighted the composite thermal-sensitive carriers containing functional photothermal/magnetocaloric nanoparticles, because their self-heating and self-imaging can be untilized for precise targeting and monitoring. Finally, the review analyzed and stressed the relaltionship between properties of thermal-sensitive nanocarriers and optimal TER temperature, and pointed out development tendency of composite thermal-sensitive carriers on thermal-chemotherapy. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Thermal-sensitive drug delivery
2.1 Thermal-sensitive liposomes and polymer vesicles
2.2 Thermal-sensitive polymer micelles
2.3 Advantage of thermal-sensitive drug delivery
3 Thermo-chemotherapy of cancer
3.1 Principle of thermo-chemotherapy of cancer
3.2 Current situation of thermo-chemotherapy
3.3 Effect of hyperthermia on thermo-chemotherapy
4 Applications of thermal-sensitive drug delivery on thermo-chemotherapy
4.1 Single thermal-sensitive drug delivery
4.2 Composited thermal-sensitive drug delivery
5 Conclusion and outlook

Gold nanoclusters are composed of several to a hundred atoms. As a kind of fluorescent materials, gold nanoclusters have recently attracted significant attention because they provide the link between atom and nanoparticle. Gold nanoclusters exhibit unique optical properties due to quantum effect as their sizes are close to the Femi wavelength of electrons. Fluorescent gold nanoclusters have attractive characteristics such as small size, good water solubility, remarkable photophysical properties, large surface area, and facile surface modification. Recently, a variety of synthesis approaches for the preparation of water-soluble fluorescent gold nanoclusters have been developed, which significantly facilitate the understanding of their properties and applications. It has been proven that the fluorescent properties of gold nanoclusters could be adjustable by using suitable ligands and biocompatible scaffolds. Until now, fluorescence gold nanoclusters have shown potential applications in the fields of biosensors, nano-labeling, molecular imaging and optoelectronics. As a novel class of fluorescent probe, fluorescent gold nanoclusters have been used for the sensing of small molecules. In this review, we highlight the recent advances in fluorescene determination of metal ions, anions, and the biological organic molecules including hydrogen peroxide, glucose, glutathione, adenosine triphosphate, and amino acids. The current challenges and future perspectives in this research area are also outlined. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Application of gold nanoclusters in sensing of small molecules
2.1 Detection of metal ions
2.2 Detection of anions
2.3 Detection of small organic molecules
3 Conclusion and outlook

With the fast development of polyoxometalate (POM) chemistry,there is a need to bridge the gap between solid-state structure and solution properties of POM which is helpful to design and synthesize function-directed POMs. Conventional analytical techniques have signicant drawbacks especially for study of special structured POMs and investigation of the formation mechanism in solutions. With the development of soft ionization techniques——matrix assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) and especially electrospray ionization (ESI), mass spectrometry (MS) became one of most powerful analytical techniques applicable to simple inorganic, coordination and organometallic compounds. Polyoxometalates are a kind of inorganic polymers which are ideal candidates to be examined using high-resolution mass spectrometry since they are intrinsically charged and have characteristic isotopic envelopes, resulting from the stable isotopes of W and Mo, which can be precisely fitted to determine the exact formula. This paper reviews the research progress of the application of mass spectrometry in polyoxometalate chemistry. ESI-MS can provide vital information of the cluster composition in solution and be used to probe the self-assembly mechanism in solution. In addition, the potential applications of mass spectrometry in the field are stated. Contents
1 Introduction
2 The use of mass spectrometry in polyoxometalate chemistry
2.1 Investigation of cluster composition in solution
2.2 Identification of protonation state and the clusters with structural defects
2.3 Study of gas-phase fragmentations
2.4 Verification of self-assembly process
2.5 Differentiation of isomers
3 Conclusion and perspectives

Synchrotron radiation based Fourier-transform infrared (S-FTIR) microspectroscopy is a new-developed technique, which combines the advantages of FTIR spectroscopy and synchrotron light source. FTIR spectroscopy is an easy, fast, and well-established analytical method to be wildly used in many fields, especially has the ability to characterize different samples (for instance, organic and inorganic materials, or crystalline and amorphous materials) in the same time. On the other hand, the ultra brightness and high spatial resolution of synchrotron light source ensure S-FTIR microspectroscopy is capable of analyzing small samples or small sample areas that conventional FTIR cannot do. After 20 years of development, S-FTIR has been widely used in a variety of analytical chemistry field and obtained an abundant research results. In our previous review, we discussed the application of S-FTIR microspectroscopy in biomedical field, so here we review recent applications of S-FTIR microspectroscopy in some other analytical chemistry areas, including cultural heritage and archaeology, earth and space science, and chemistry and polymer science. It is no doubt that S-FTIR microspectroscopy has become a more and more useful tool to determine the structure of small samples or small sample areas. In the future, a multibeam synchrotron imaging system, which combine a multibeam synchrotron source with focal plane array (FPA) detectors, with a greatly improved spatial resolution by reducing the diffraction limited spot size an order of magnitude to 0.54 μm × 0.54 μm, may further show the merit of S-FTIR technique on the characterization of small samples or small sample areas in various research fields. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Synchrotron infrared light source
3 Applications in the cultural heritage and archeology field
4 Applications in the earth and space science field
5 Applications in the chemistry and polymer science field
6 Outlook

Chitin and chitosan, as the biological macromolecular materials, are hardly soluble in many traditional solvents. This behavior limits their wide application and chemical modification. Therefore, it will be of great importance to research and develop the better solvent system. In this paper, the dissolution performance and dissolving mechanism of chitin or chitosan in ionic liquids are reviewed in the first place. Secondly, the chemical modifications of chitin or chitosan in ionic liquids (such as hydrolysis, acylation, graft copolymerization and so on) are summarized. Ionic liquid, as a kind of the recycled fine solvent, will provide a better media for the effective application and chemical modification of chitin or chitosan. Based on the ionic liquid solvent, the research and application of chitin or chitosan will be broaden. Contents
1 Introduction
2 The dissolution of chitin or chitosan in ionic liquid
2.1 The dissolution of chitin or chitosan in the imidazole-based ionic liquid
2.2 The dissolution of chitin or chitosan in other ionic liquid
3 The chemical reaction of chitin or chitosan in ionic liquid
3.1 The degradation of chitin or chitosan in ionic liquid
3.2 The acylation of chitin or chitosan in ionic liquid
3.3 The graft copolymerization of chitin or chitosan in ionic liquid
3.4 The other reaction of chitin or chitosan in ionic liquid
4 Outlook

As the most abundant natural renewable aromatic polymers, lignins can be used to produce bio-fuels and value-added chemicals. Lignins attract more and more attention in energy and chemical industrials, and have the potential to substitute petroleum as raw materials to some extent. To realize the application of lignins, the chemical composition and structural characteristics should be fully understood. However, the ubiquitous crosslinks among lignins, cellulose and hemicelluloses are complex, resulting in the incomplete separation of lignin from biomass.In addition, diverse sources and complex structures embarrass the development of investigation and application.With revealing the chemical compositions of lignins as the starting point, methodologies and technologies, such as pretreatment, separation, transformation and analysis, for the structural investigation of lignins are compared, and the up-to-date advances, including monolignols and linkages of lignins, biosynthetic processes, the reactions of model compounds and lignification theories are importantly reviewed. The applications of lignins and their derivatives in the fields of polymer blends, resins, carbon fiber, activated carbon and other chemicals along with related difficult problems are pointed out. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Methods of structural investigation
2.1 Methods of pretreatment and separation of lignins from biomass
2.2 Analysis methods
3 Progress in structural investigation of lignins
3.1 Molecular mass and molecular mass distribution
3.2 Monolignols
3.3 Linkages
3.4 Lignin/phenolic carbohydrate complexes
3.5 Macromolecules and stereochemistry of lignins
3.6 Biosynthesis
3.7 Lignin-related model compounds
3.8 Models of lignins
3.9 Computer-added designing and simulation
3.10 Theories of lignification
4 Applications
4.1 Additives and blends
4.2 Lignin-based resins
4.3 Carbon fiber and activated carbon
4.4 Value-added chemicals
5 Conclusions and prospectives

In this paper, the recent research progresses in carbon deposition on the Ni catalysts for conversion of CH₄ to synthesis gas has been summarized. The thermodynamics, kinetics and type of coke, the mechanism of carbon deposition, and the impact factors of coke formation are discussed. The effects of nickel particles size, the alkali strength degree and redox properties of supports, the interaction between nickel and supports to the amount and the type of coke deposition have been substantially analyzed. By using modern characterization measures, the mechanism, type, and amount of carbon deposition in this methane reforming reaction and elements which influence the carbon deposition are reviewed in detail, which can provide a theoretical basis for the design and development of resistance to coke properties of nickel catalyst. The well anti-coke performance catalyst can be prepared by enhancing the interaction between Ni and supports, improving the degree of dispersion of Ni on the carrier, reducing the size of Ni particles (less than 20 nm). Less amount of coke formation can be achieved by using fluidized bed reactor than fixed bed, optimizing the process parameters, and seeking for the effective regeneration method of used carbon deposition catalyst. Contents
1 Introduction
2 Catalysts for methane reforming
3 Coke deposition on Ni-based catalysts
3.1 Thermodynamics and dynamics of coke deposition
3.2 Type of coke
3.3 Mechanism of coke deposition
3.4 Influence factors for coke deposition
3.5 Partially elimination of surface coke
4 Conclusions and outlook