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Progress in Chemistry 2020, Vol. 32 Issue (5): 548-561 DOI: 10.7536/PC190922 Previous Articles   Next Articles

• Review •

Preparation of Solid-State Fluorescent Carbon Dots

Shijia Li1,2, Ernan Pang1,2, Caihong Hao3, Tingting Cai1, Shengliang Hu3,**()   

  1. 1.School of Materials Science and Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China
    2.Shanxi Institute of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering, Changzhi 046011, China
    3.School of Energy and Power Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China
  • Received: Revised: Online: Published:
  • Contact: Shengliang Hu
  • About author:
    ** e-mail:
  • Supported by:
    Specialized Research Fund for Sanjin Scholars Program of Shanxi Province, the Program for the Innovative Talents of Higher Education Institutions of Shanxi, the Key Research and Development Plan(International Cooperation) of Shanxi Province(201903D421082); Specialized Research Fund for Sanjin Scholars Program of Shanxi Province, the Program for the Innovative Talents of Higher Education Institutions of Shanxi, the Key Research and Development Plan(201803D421091); Transformation of Scientific and Technological Achievements Programs of Higher Education Institutions in Shanxi (TSTAP), China()
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Fluorescent carbon dots have attracted significant interest for their non-toxicity, low cost and unique photoluminescence properties. Generally, the preparation and usage of carbon dots(CDs) are in solution. With the increase of CDs concentration, their fluorescence intensity may be reduced or even quenched. Following, the solid-state fluorescent CDs powder obtained by simple drying often lack of fluorescence properties. Therefore, there are relatively few researches on the preparation and related applications of solid-state fluorescent CDs. The article describes recent preparation methods of solid-state fluorescent CDs, including post-processing methods(matrix dispersion method, surface engineering) and direct synthesis method. The changes of fluorescence properties of CDs before and after treatment are compared, and the main problems in preparation and application of solid CDs are summarized. Meanwhile, the preparation, performance modulation of solid-state fluorescent CDs are prospected. It is very crucial to exploit the CDs with the enhancement of aggregation induced emission, which provides a new strategy for the development of solid-state fluorescence CDs.

Contents

1 Introduction

2 Preparation of solid-state fluorescent carbon dots by post-processing method

2.1 Matrix dispersion method

2.2 Surface engineering method

3 Preparation of solid-state fluorescent carbon dots by direct synthesis method

4 Conclusion

Key words: solid-state fluorescent CDs, preparation, fluorescence quantum yield, fluorescence quenching, loading ratio
Fig. 1 Possible mechanism of fluorescence quenching
Fig. 2 Photographs of CDs@starch powder with a mass ratio of 1∶450,1∶70,1∶20 under sunlight (a) and ultraviolet (b). Fluorescence photographs of CDs@starch powder with a mass ratio of 1∶70 excited by ultraviolet(c and c'), blue light(d and d'), and green light(e and e') [63]. Copyright 2014, Royal Society of Chemistry
Fig. 3 (a) Schematic of the formation process of the CDs-ZnO@APTES.(b) PLE spectra of the CDs-ZnO@APTES powder and fluorescence spectra with different excitation wavelengths[65]. Copyright 2018,Royal Society of Chemistry
Fig. 4 (a) Optical and(b) fluorescent images of resulting CDs@NaCl powder. (c) and (d) SEM images of CDs@NaCl powders.[67] Copyright 2017, Elsevier
Fig. 5 (a)Chemical structure of TMA-POSS.(b) Photographs of CDs@TMA-POSS powders under daylight(top) and UV light(bottom).(c)TEM image of CDs@TMA-POSS[68]. Copyright 2015,Royal Society of Chemistry
Fig. 6 SEM of F-CDs @SrCO3(a) and F-CDs@BaCO3(d). Optical microscopy images(b, e, g, j) and confocal fluorescence microscopy images(c, f, h, k) of F-CDs@SrCO3(b, c), F-CDs @BaCO3(e, f),F-CDs@CaSO4 ·2H2O(g, h) and F-CDs@SrSO4(j, k).Distribution models of F-CDs@CaSO4 ·2H2O(i) and F-CDs@SrSO4(l).(m)Photographs of the nine F-CDs/inorganic nanocomposites upon UV excitation and after removal of UV excitation. Steady-state photoluminescence emission spectra of Ca, Sr and Ba carbonates(n), sulphates(o) and oxalates(p) F-CDs/inorganic nanocomposites[69]. Copyright 2019, Nature
Fig. 7 The pictures of CDs ethanol solution(a, a'), CDs powder(b, b'), CD@SiO2 film(c, c') and CD@SiO2 powder(d, d') under daylight(up) and ultraviolet(down) lamps[70]. Copyright 2018,Elsevier
Fig. 8 (a,b)Excitation and emission spectra of CDs aqueous solution and Zr-MOF.(c) PL emission spectra of CDs, Zr-MOF and CDs@Zr-MOF excited under 365 nm.(d)PL decays of CDs(blue), Zr-MOF(red) and CDs@Zr-MOF(black)[71]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry
Table 1 Summary of optical properties and applications of the CDs from various precursors and preparation methods
Precursor Method Synthesized CDs Size/nm Ex/nm Em/nm QY/% Application ref
CA
Urea
starch		 water(MW, 750 W,
5 min)
chemical adsorption		 g-CDs
CDs@starch
(mass ratio:1:70)		 2~20[89]
20~40
(μm)		 420
420		 540
515		 18
50		 LEDs,
temperature
sensors		 63
CA
Urea
BaCl2,Na2SO4		 water(MW, 750 W,
5 min)
electrostatic adsorption		 g-CDs
CDs@BaSO4		 2~20
60~150		 405
405		 522
520		 17
27		 LEDs 64
CA, ethylenediamine
Zn(Ac)·2H2O, KOH
APTES		 water(300 ℃, 5 h)
stirring
electrostatic adsorption		 CDs
ZnO
CDs-ZnO@APTES		 2~10
4~6
2~10		 300
370
365		 450
540
450~540		 49 WLEDs 65
AAPMS, CA
KBr,KCl,NaCl		 (240 ℃, 1 h)
physical embedding		 CDs
CDs@salt		 360
360		 440
440		 LEDs 58, 66
CA, Urea
NaCl		 water(MW, 750 W,
5 min)
physical embedding		 g-CDs
CDs@NaCl		 2~5
2~5
(μm)		 405
405		 522
510		 14
25		 WLEDs 67
CA, L-cysteine
TMA-POSS		 water(200 ℃, 3 h)
physical embedding		 CDs
CDs@TMA-POSS
(2×105:1)		 3.0~6.5 200~400
260~400		 420
415		 78
60		 solid-state lighting
devices		 68, 90
sodiumfolate
CaCl2·2H2O,Na2CO3
SrCl2·6H2O,Na2CO3
BaCl2,Na2CO3
CaCl2·2H2O,Na2SO4
SrCl2·6H2O,Na2SO4
BaCl2,Na2SO4
CaCl2·2H2O,Na2C2O4
SrCl2·6H2O,Na2C2O4
BaCl2,Na2C2O4		 water(200 ℃, 12 h) F-CNDs
F-CNDs@CaCO3
F-CNDs@SrCO3
F-CNDs@BaCO3
F-CNDs@CaSO4·2H2O
F-CNDs@SrSO4
F-CNDs@BaSO4
F-CNDs@CaC2O4·H2O
F-CNDs@SrC2O4·H2O
F-CNDs@BaC2O4·0.5H2O		 3~5 320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320
320		 398
398
398
398
398
398
398
398
398
398		 11
6.8
3.2
0.5
7.2
1.7
0.0
2.7
0.3
0.6		 theranostic agents
forbackgroundless bio-imaging
pH-responsive controlled-
release materials		 69
Precursor Method Synthesized CDs Size/nm Ex/nm Em/nm QY/% Application ref
PPDA
KH-792		 ethanol(180 ℃,6 h)
physical embedding		 CDs
CDs@silica powder		 4.0~9.0 365~525
385~525		 600
597		 52.46
41.72		 LEDs 70
CA, urea
H4L, benzoic acid
ZrOCl2·8H2O, DMF
AEATMS		 ammonia water
(MW,700 W,6 min)
(120 ℃,72 h)		 CDs

CDs@Zr-MOF
(dispersed in AEATMS)		 4 365

365		 450

450
511
550		 22

37		 WLEDs 71
ethylene glycol
DMF		 (200 ℃, 5 h)
ethylenediamine modification
surface functionalization		 N-CDs
CDs@DMF
(VN-CDs/VDMF :0.25)		 1~5 445
445		 new devices
and materials		 73, 91
CA
SBA-15		 water(200 ℃, 5 h)
ammonia solution
(200 ℃,5 h)
surface functionalization		 CDs
CDs@SBA-15		 3.0
9.5		 400
340		 480
410		 sensing 74, 92
CA
NH2-POSS		 water(200 ℃, 5 h)
surface functionalization		 CDs
CDs@NH2-POSS		 2~7
2~9		 300~380
300~380		 445
450		 6.4
10.2		 composite fillers 75, 93
CA
H2O2		 ammonia water
(MW,650 W,5 min)
(70 ℃,2 h)
surface functionalization		 CDs
Ox-CDs
Ox-CDs powder		 2~4
2~4
2~4		 330~370
340~370
270~500		 435
435
520		 21
17
25		 solid-state lightning,
high-speed VLC,
LEDs		 76
PVA,EDA

PVA

PVA,DETA

PVA,TEPA		 water(220 ℃, 10 h)

water(220 ℃, 10 h)

water(220 ℃, 10 h)

water(220 ℃, 10 h)		 CDs220 aqueous solution
CDs220 powder
PVA220 aqueous solution
PVA220 powder
d-CDs220 aqueous solution
d-CDs220 powder
t-CDs220 aqueous solution
t-CDs220 powder		 9 340
340

365
350
365
360
365
540

460
450
580
470
550		 35

1

20

22		 LEDs 78
Tween 80 phosphoric acid,
sulfuric acid(90 ℃, 3 h)
one-step carbonization		 CDs(CH2Cl2)

CDs powder		 3.5~5.3 363

365		 435

455		 2.1

2.0		 visualizationoffing-erprints,LEDs 79
trisodium

citrate dehydrate
urea		 DMF(160 ℃, 4 h)
In-situ embedding
DMAC(160 ℃, 4 h)
In-situ embedding
DEF(160 ℃, 4 h)
In-situ embedding		 CDs11 aqueous solution
CDs11powder
CDs12 aqueous solution
CDs12powder
CDs21 aqueous solution
CDs21powder
400

100~500

300~500		 422
422
412
412
414
414
537

530

513		 20.8
21.6
14.9
18.7
17.5
17.6		 WLEDs,
fluorescent plates		 80
Al(OiPr)3
H3PO4
HF
Al(OiPr)3
H3PO4		 trimethylamine
triethylene glycol
(180 ℃, 3 days)
4,7,10-trioxa-1,
13-tridecanediamine triethylene glycol
(180 ℃, 3 days)		 CDs@AlPO-5


CDs@2D-AlPO		 3.7 nm


3.5 nm		 370


370		 430


440		 15.53


52.14		 smart material in
dual-mode security protection		 81
Al(OiPr)3
H3PO4		 MgHPO4 ·3H2O,H2O
4,7,10-trioxa-1,
13-tridecanediamine
(180 ℃, 3 days)
In-situ embedding		 CDs@MgAPO-5 3.4 nm 370 425 22.77
MA,DTSA acetic acid
(180 ℃,10 h)		 H-CDs(acetic acid)
H-CD powder		 4~10
4~10		 360
559		 467
620		 5.96 luminescence ink,
encryption tool		 82
CA,Urea,CaCl2 vacuum heating v-CDs(ethanol solution) 4.1 380~430 510~514 72 encryption medium 83
CA,L-cysteine
KCl		 one-pot microwave
heating(5 min)		 CDs solution
(0.2 mg·mL-1)
CDs powder		 2.1 340~380

430~500		 435

500~620		 84

65		 WLEDs 84
Fig. 9 (a,b) SEM images of the solid assemblies.(c) SEM image of the ramified precipitates.(d) PL spectra of N-CD’s solution, solid assemblies, ramified precipitates and powders without N-CDs.(e) Schematic diagram of Schiff base formation[73]. Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry
Fig. 10 (a) Schematic diagram of CDs@SBA-15, (b) PL excitation and emission spectra of NCDs and NCDs@SBA-15.(c) PL spectra of NCDs@SBA-15 in water, concentrated HCl and ammonia solution(λex=340 nm).(d) Photographs of CDs@SBA-15 under UV light[74]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry
Fig. 11 (a) UV-visible absorption spectra of CDs and ox-CDs aqueous solutions.(b) Diffuse reflection absorption spectra of solid phases of CDs and ox-CDs[76]. Copyright 2018, Wiley
Fig. 12 (a), (b) TEM images of CDs220 ethanol solution.(c) Fluorescence emission spectra of CDs220 aqueous solution and CDs220 powders excited at 340 nm.(d) Images of d-CDs220(1), t-CDs220(2), CDs220(3), PVA220(4) and CDs220@starch(5) under daylight(top) and ultraviolet(bottom). (e) Solid-state fluorescence spectra of the above powders[78]. Copyright 2015, Wiley
Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of CDs powders preparation route[79]. Copyright 2018,Elsevier
Fig. 14 (a) Schematic of in situ formation process of CDs11 powder.(b) TEM image of CDs12 powder.(c) TEM image of CDs21 powder[80]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier
Fig. 15 (a)SEM image(left) and fluorescence microscopy images(right) excited under UV, blue and green light of CDs @AlPO-5 composite.(b)SEM image(left) and fluorescence microscopy images(right) excited under UV, blue and green light of CDs@2D-AlPO composite.(c)SEM image(left) and fluorescence microscopy images(right) excited under UV, blue and green light of CDs@MgAPO-5.(d)PL decays of CDs@AlPO-5 at room temperature[81]. Copyright 2017, Science
Fig. 16 (a) The schematic diagram of blue H-CDs monomers and red aggregates.(b) The schematic diagram of H-CDs formation from dispersion to aggregate.(c) Principle of blue fluorescence quenching and red fluorescence opening(left) and proposed surface and core structure of H-CDs(right)[82]. Copyright 2019,Nature
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