Photoelectrochemical process is an electrochemical process under light irradiation, which is a very active research field currently. It is also the base of practical applications for photovoltaic cells, photoelectrocatalysis and so on. The high performance photoelectrochemical devices are strongly dependent on advanced semiconductors or their nanocomposites with high quantum efficiency. On the other hand, because of their good chemical and thermal stability, high electrical conductivity and large surface area, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been used as effective supports for semiconductors, and their unique one-dimensional geometric structure provides effective transmission path for electrons. Moreover, carbon nanotube/semiconductor nanocomposites which have attracted great attentions usually exhibit synergistic effect for high photoeletrochemical response. The recombination of photo-induced electrons and holes will be restrained further with the applied bias voltage, thus facilitates the transfer of electrons to the external circuit. In this review paper, we summarize the progress of the recently published literatures and our findings on photoelectrochemical properties and applications based on carbon nanotubes/semiconductor nanocomposites. The enhancement mechanism for the high photoelectrochemical performance of the nanocomposites is discussed. The applications including solar cells, photoelectrochemical degradation of pollutants and splitting of water for hydrogen generation are introduced in details. The prospect and challenge to the material science and future applications are also discussed.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Mechanism of photoelectrochemical synergistic effect of CNTs/semiconductor nanocomposites
2.1 Synergistic effect based on characteristics of CNTs and semiconductor
2.2 Synergistic effect based on light irradiation and applied potential
3 Applications
3.1 Solar cells
3.2 Photoelectrochemical degradation of pollutants
3.3 Splitting of water for hydrogen generation
4 Conclusion and prospect

Cholic acid has attracted great interest during the past few years mainly due to its superior bio-compatibility, unique amphiphilic structure, chirality, and in particular its capability to aggregate in various solvents or mediums. It is these properties that make cholic acid an ideal building block for creating novel suparmolecular structures. As an example, it has been employed for the creation of novel low-molecular mass gelators (LMMGs), which are the key components to form supramolecular gels. Gelation by LMMGs is a field of intense current activity with gelation being produced by a wide and increasing range of organic compounds. Cholic acid and its derivatives are some of these compounds. However, compared to the studies of cholesterol as a building block to create novel LMMGs, studies for cholic acid in this regard are limited, and the number of the LMMGs derived from cholic acid is less than 100 till the draft of this review. In fact, cholic acid is water soluble, and possesses more reactive groups on its skeleton if compared to cholesterol, and these properties may provide the later more chances to be derived into hydro-gelators, a necessity for creating bio-compatible gel materials, which may find uses in biomedical and pharmaceutical fields. Considering the reasons and facts described above and the potential applications of cholic acid relevant supramolecular gels, this paper briefly reviews the structures, the gelation behaviors and the properties of the gels. In addition, the potential applications of the gels are also presented. It is expected that the field discussed in this review paper can grow rapidly.

Contents
1 General introduction
2 Cholic acid and cholate based gels
3 Cholic acid derivatives based on the modification of carboxylic group and their relevant gels
4 Cholic acid derivatives based on the modification of hydroxyl groups and their relevant Gels
5 Conclusions and outlook

Rechargeable magnesium batteries may be a potential candidate for heavy load application due to higher energy density, cheap raw material costs and easy to handle of magnesium. In this paper, the recent research advances on electrolytes for rechargeable magnesium batteries are reviewed, especially on ethereal solutions of Grignard reagents, Mg(BR₂R′₂)₂ (R、R′ = alkyl or aryl groups), Mg(AX_4-nR_n′R′_n″)₂ complexes (A = Al, B, Sb, P, As, Fe and Ta, X = Cl, Br and F, R、R′ = alkyl or aryl groups, 0<n<4, n′+n″= n) or amidomagnesium halides, Mg ion conductive molten salts and polymeric electrolytes. The performances and characteristics of above three systems are presented, and further researches and developments are proposed.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Ether-based organic electrolytes
2.1 Grignard reagents
2.2 Mg(BR₂R′₂)₂
2.3 Mg(AX_4-nR_n′R′_n″)₂ complexes
2.4 Amidomagnesium halides
2.5 Others
3 Molten salts
3.1 Ionic liquids
3.2 High temperature molten salts
4 Polymeric electrolytes
5 Inorganic solid electrolytes
6 Conclusions and outlook

Among the research of new pharmaceutic dosage forms, controlled-release drug delivery system is a very important issue nowdays. In this field, processes using supercritical fluid technology are mostly "clean" process leading to "clean" products. Meanwhile, inorganic porous materials are emerging as a new category of host/guest systems due to some interesting features such as their biological stability and their drug-releasing properties. This review summarizes the applications of supercritical fluid transport technology in preparation of controlled-release drug delivery system in recent years and pays more attention on the method using supercritical fluid as the solvent and inorganic mesoporous materials as the support to prepare this controlled-release drug delivery system. The technical principle, development of technological process and the main influence factors are discussed here besides the drug release experiments and the comparison with the traditional methods. It shows clearly the advantages and disadvantages of various processes, and sums up the superiority of the supercritical transport technology in preparing controlled-release drug delivery system. Although this technique has lots of advantages, as for the papers delivered at present, the research on supercritical fluid transport technology is just at its initial stage of development because there are so many factors influencing the experimental results and these factors are sometimes link-coupled. It is still challenging to make the preparation controllable. It indicates that the diffusion and penetration of the supercritical carbon dioxide drug solution in porous materials, the surface chemical and physical adsorption mechanism should be focused on as well as the controlled drug release mechanism, thermodynamic model and process dynamic.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Experimental principle, process and equipments
3 Application of inorganic mesoporous materials in preparing controlled-release drug
3.1 Inorganic mesoporous materials
3.2 The traditional impregnation methods
3.3 The experiments using scCO₂ and liquid CO₂
3.4 Analysis of influence factors
4 Conclusions and outlook

Localized electrochemical techniques such as scanning Kelvin probe (SKP), localized electrochemical impedance (LEIS) and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) have been applied to many fields due to their high accuracy and high space resolution in local area. This paper briefly introduces the measuring principle of localized electrochemical techniques and their key problems, such as the measurement of corrosion potential with SKP, the selection of redox mediator for SECM and the determination of scanning frequency for LEIS. The emphasis is put on the application of above mentioned three techniques to the study of corrosion behavior at the interface between organic coating and metal substrate. In light of it, the unique advantages of three techniques are elucidated, including on interface morphology acquiring, the deduction and verification of corrosion mechanisms for the interface corrosion and their affecting factors. Meanwhile, the representation of parameters, like interface potential, interface resistance/capacitance and interface current that involved in characterizing processes, is discussed. It is proved that in respect of the interface corrosion, localized electrochemical study complements general electrochemistry well, which is fundamental to the establishment of local electrochemistry for the interface corrosion between organic coating and metal substrate. Also, it has to be recognized that in order to enlarge the applicability of these techniques, they must be further improved in the aspect of ultromicroelectrode size and used jointly with other advanced techniques.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Measuring principle of localized electrochemical techniques and their key problems
2.1 Measuring principle
2.2 Key problems
3 Study on corrosion behaviors at the interface between organic coating and metal substrate
3.1 Corrosion morphology at the interface
3.2 Corrosion mechanisms at the interface
3.3 Influence of medias
4 Characterization of interface electrochemistry
4.1 Interface potential
4.2 Interface resistance/capacitance
4.3 Shift of ion concentrations
5 Conclusions

Phosphorescent transition-metal complexes have attracted extensive attention in recent years due to their ability of harvesting both singlet and triplet exciton in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), theoretically enabling internal quantum efficiency to be 100%, while the up-limitation for fluorescent OLEDs is 25%. Among these materials, iridium complexes are the most promising emitters for OLEDs since they usually have good features of strong luminescence, tunable emission color, good thermal and electrochemical stability, as well as being able to form neutral compounds for vacuum deposition. This article reviews the progress in molecular iridium complexes, focusing on the aspects of material design and synthesis, mechanisms for emission, as well as innovation of materials and their performance in OLED devices. Particularly, after describing the typical device structure for phosphorescent emitter, the dominate emission mechanisms for iridium complexes are discussed in two classes, i.e., main ligand-based metal-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) emission for both homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes, auxiliary ligand intermediated MLCT emission for heteroleptic complexes. For material synthesis, according to the nature of reaction, four commonly used synthetic-routes are summarized. Meanwhile, the facial-and meridional-isomers are discussed. In the material development for OLEDs, categorized into different emission color, materials and their corresponding device performance are summarized and discussed. In addition, the host materials for the above emitters are briefly introduced. Finally, further development for phosphorescent materials is proposed.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Basic structures and operating principle of OLEDs
3 Light emitting mechanisms for iridium (Ⅲ) complexes
4 Synthesis of iridium (Ⅲ) complexes
5 Progress in developing iridium (Ⅲ) complexes
5.1 Green phosphorescent iridium (Ⅲ) complexes
5.2 Red phosphorescent iridium (Ⅲ) complexes
5.3 Blue phosphorescent iridium (Ⅲ) complexes
5.4 Other emitting color iridium (Ⅲ) complexes
6 Host materials for iridium (Ⅲ) complexes
7 Conclusions and prospects

Copper nanomaterials have received considerable attentions in recent years because of their unique physico-chemical properties and widespread applications in various areas such as optics, electronics, catalysis, antibacterial, lubrication, and fillermodification of polymers and so on. Recently many methods have been exploited for the preparation of copper nanostructures with different sizes and shapes. In this paper, a comprehensive review is presented on the general preparation methods of copper nanomaterials, including chemical reduction method, microemulsion technique, polyol process, organic precurser thermal decomposition method, electrochemical method, etc.. Their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. While selection of proper ligands is critical to the surface-modification of nanomaterials, we give a detailed introduction to the features and functions of various molecular ligands in relation to the control of size and morphology as well as surface functionalization of Cu nanomaterials. Combining with our group work on the preparation of inorganic nanomaterials, the development trends of copper nanomaterials are also proposed.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Preparation methods of copper nanomaterials
2.1 Chemical reduction method
2.2 Microemulsion technique
2.3 Polyol process
2.4 Organic precursor thermal decomposition method
2.5 Electrochemical method
2.6 Other preparation methods
3 Conclusions and prospects

O-GlcNAcylation is a newly discovered protein post-translational modification on Ser/Thr. Similar to phosphorylation, O-GlcNAcylation plays an important role in cell signal transduction and may be associated with many human diseases such as degenerative diseases, type Ⅱ diabetes and cancer. O-linked-N-acetylglucosidase (O-GlcNAcase, OGA) is the only glycoside hydrolase catalyzing the hydrolytic cleavage of O-linked-N-acetylgluco-samine (O-GlcNAc) from serine and threonine residues of proteins. So using potent and specific small-molecular OGA inhibitors is the most direct approach for modulating protein O-GlcNAcylation levels in cell. Furthermore, these potent, selective inhibitors offer motivation for the generation of new drugs for the therapy of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and the associated degenerative diseases. According to the research on OGA inhibitors in our lab, the structure and the catalytic mechanism of OGA and related OGA inhibitors are introduced. In addition, the structure and activity relationships of OGA inhibitors and the perspective of the study on OGA inhibitors are also discussed.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Structure and catalytic mechanism of OGA
3 OGA inhibitors
3.1 Streptozotocin
3.2 PUGNAc and its analogues
3.3 NAG-thiazolin and its analogues
3.4 Nagstain and its analogues
3.5 Iminocyclitiols
3.6 Other OGA inhibitors
4 Conclusion and perspective

As a class of particular host molecules, phosphorous-containing calixarenes, can form host-guest complexes with numerous guest molecules by different ways. Either the calixarenes or their complexes, show extensive application potential in many fields, such as molecular recognition, self-assembly, mimic of biological enzyme, drug design, chemsensor and metal catalyst exploitation. In this article, research progress during past decade on phosphorous-containing calixarenes and their complexes is reviewed, with focuses on synthetic methods as well as applications of novel phosphorous-containing calixarenes and their complexes. The research trend is also prospected.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Synthesis of phosphorous-containing calixarenes and their complexes
2.1 Calix[4]arenes and their complexes
2.2 Calix[5]arenes and their complexes
2.3 Calix[6]arenes and their complexes
2.4 Other higher order calixarenes and their complexes
2.5 Resorcinarenes and their complexes
2.6 Biscalixarenes and their complexes
3 Applications of phosphorous-containing calixarenes and their complexes
3.1 Mimic and inhibition of enzyme
3.2 Drug design
3.3 Molecular recognition
3.4 Self-assembly
4 Conclusion and prospective

The extracellular proteolysis is the necessary condition for the malignant process of tumor invasion and metastasis. These proteolytic reactions destruct the cell-cell and cell/ECM contacts and degrade the extracellular matrix (ECM) components which pose physical obstacle in the direction of migration/invasion. Urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), which can activate the inactive plasminogen to plasmin, plays a pivotal role in clot lysis and keeps the blood flowing. Moreover, active uPA degrades ECM and activates a number of matrix metalloproteases, beginning a cascade of events adapting to the cancer cell invasion, spread and metastasis. The inhibition of uPA activity has been recognized as an efficient method in the treatment of cancer by retarding tumor growth and metastasis and inhibition of urokinase with synthetic inhibitor is a new concept for specific cancer therapy. Here we review the current research status of synthetic uPA inhibitors.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Active positions of uPA serine protease domain (SPD)
3 Synthetic inhibitors of uPA
3.1 Non-peptidic inhibitors
3.2 Peptidic inhibitor
3.3 Other uPA inhibitors
4 Research status of uPA synthetic inhibitors in animal experiment
5 Prospects

Azide groups are not only energetic and highly reactive groups, but also can be transformed into a variety of functional groups. With the development of the polymer science, azide polymers have been widely used as high energetic binders, cross-linking materials, materials for surface modification, and precursors of functional polymers. The synthesis of azide polymers has attracted great attention of polymer scientists. Until now, a number of synthetic methods for different azide polymers have been developed such as chemical modification of polymers, cationic ring-opening polymerization of cyclic ether azide monomers, and radical polymerization of unsaturated azide monomers. In this paper, the recent progresses on the synthesis of azide polymers, including the achievements of our research group, are summarized.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Chemical modification of polymers
2.1 Azide polymers with ether chain as main chain
2.2 Azide polymers with carbon chain as main chain
3 Cationic ring-opening polymerization
4 Radical polymerization
4.1 Conventional radical polymerization
4.2 Living radical polymerization
5 Other synthesis methods
6 Outlook

With the rapid development of information technology, conventional memories are facing with unprecedented challenge for both code and mass storage applications spurred by potable system. New memory technologies are demanded urgently to miniaturize from micro-to nano-scale. Polymer electrical memory materials and devices have emerged in recent years to meet the requirements. Compared with inorganic materials, polymer electrical memory materials exhibit several significant advantages, such as easy processability, low cost, good stability, high mechanical strength, low-power dissipation, multi-layer stacking,super high data storage density and so on. These advantages make possible for polymer memory to be an alternative or supplementary technology to the conventional memory technology. Firstly, the design principles and basic concepts of organic memory materials and devices are briefly introduced in this paper. Several critical features and main mechanisms of memory devices are summarized. Secondly, according to the volatile property,polymer memory devices are classified into three categories, including flash memory devices, write-once read-many times memory devices and dynamic random access memory devices. The recent research progress in polymer memory materials and their applications in these three categories of polymer electronic memories are reviewed respectively. Finally, the existing challenges in polymer electronic memories are discussed and the research and development trend in this field are prospected.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Organic electrical memory devices
2.1 The critical features of memory devices
2.2 The main mechanisms of memory devices
3 Polymer electrical memory materials and devices
3.1 Flash memory devices
3.2 Write-once read-many times memory devices
3.3 Dynamic random access memory devices
4 Conclusions and outlook

Electron capture dissociation (ECD) which is believed to be non-ergodic process is a new fragmentation technique used in Fourier transformation cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry and is complementary to conventional tandem mass spectrometry techniques.Its cleavage preferentially happens not only on N-C_α bond but also on disulfide bonds (S-S) in polypeptides, which are normally stable to vibrational excitation. The labile post-translational modifications and non-covalent bonds often remain intact after backbone bond dissociation. ECD provides more extensive sequence coverage in polypeptides, and at higher electron energies even isoleucine and leucine are distinguishable. The combination of CAD and ECD improves protein identification and enables high-throughput de novo sequencing of proteins. An overview of the principle and mechanism of ECD as well as its application in biological mass spectrometry is given.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Basic principle of ECD
2.1 Basic structure of ECD FT-ICR-MS
2.2 Basic principle of ECD
3 Dissociation mechanism of ECD
3.1 Types of fragmentation ions
3.2 Dissociation mechanism of ECD
3.3 Energy variety of ECD
4 Application of ECD in bio-macromolecule study
4.1 Determination and de novo sequencing of protein
4.2 Xle isomer differentiation
4.3 Disulfide bond confirmation
4.4 Modification determination
4.5 Application in protein separation
5 Outlook

Carbohydrate microarrays, also referred to as glycan arrays, are new kinds of biological detection technology, providing a rapid, efficient, and high-throughput approach to examining carbohydrate-macromolecule interactions. This technology has had a significant impact on glycobiology in the post-genomic era. This article focuses on recent advances in immobilization techniques which include covalently immobilizations of diverse unmodified glycans and natural glycan libraries, synthesis and immobilizations of oligosaccharides, strategies for varying carbohydrate density, and the insertion of spacer. These methods have advantages of maintaining the reducing sugar groups in their cyclic forms and expanding the complexity and the utility of glycan microarrays, which further enhance the detection efficiency of this technology. Moreover, the future potential of virtual screening in glycan array technology and practical applications of carbohydrate microarrays in clinical diagnostics are provided. Finally, limitations and the future trend of carbohydrate microarrays are also discussed.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Principles and detection means
3 New developments of immobilization strategies for carbohydrate microarrays
3.1 Sources of carbohydrates and immobilization strategies
3.2 Strategies for varying carbohydrate density
3.3 The insertion of spacer
4 Virtual screening technologies
5 Applications of carbohydrate microarrays
6 Conclusions and perspectives

Folate receptor (FR) are up regulated in a broad spectrum of malignant tumors, including cancers of breast, ovary, endometrium, lung, kidney, colon, brain and myeloid cells of hematopoietic origin, while limited expression on normal cells. This over-expression of folate receptors on cancer tissues can be exploited to target folate-linked imaging agents specifically to FR-expressing tumor cells to realize the specific targeted optical imaging by linking folate to fluorescent probes using FR's character of binding folate and folate conjugate with very high affinity . In this review,the schematic of folate fluorescence probe and its mechanism on the marking of tumor cells are introduced. Research and development of FR-mediated tumor targeting optical imaging technology in recent ten years such as the use of organic fluorescent dye, dye-doped nanoparticles, quantum dots (QDs), magnetic nanoparticles and multifunctional particles are summarized. The future prospects and challenges of the current tumor targeted optical imaging research are also proposed in this review. Some FR-mediated tumor targeting optical imaging technologies are shown to be very effective for sensitive cancer imaging with greater success in the cellular level, but most of the experiments are in vitro. There are several challenges in developing fluorescent probes for in vivo cancer imaging applications, such as, to develop NIR fluorescent agents and improve surface modifying technology.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Structure of composite of folate fluorescent probe
3 Mechanism of tumour cell marked using folate fluorescent probe
4 FR-mediated tumor targeting imaging technology
4.1 Fluorescent dye probe
4.2 Dye-doped nanoparticles
4.3 Quantum dots
4.4 Magnetic nanoparticles
4.5 Multi-functional nanoparticles
5 Potential and challenge of FR-mediated tumor targeting imaging fluorescent probe
6 Expectations

The imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants in biological systems may lead to oxidative stress, which is associated with the pathogenesis of several human diseases. The putative protective effects of antioxidants against these oxidative-induced reactions have received increasing attention. Here, the concept of oxidative stress is introduced, including reactive oxygen species, antioxidants, oxidative injury, etc. Furthermore, the methods most widely used for the determination of reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species scavenging capacity as well as the newly developed evaluation assay using gold nanoshells composites by our research group and other methods based on nanomaterials are evaluated, presenting the general principles, recent applications, and their strengths and limitations. Finally, current problems and the prospect of the standardized analytical methods are proposed.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Scavenging capacity assays against specific reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species
2.1 ROO^· scavenging capacity assay
2.2 O₂^·- scavenging capacity assay
2.3 H₂O₂ scavenging capacity assay
2.4 HO^· scavenging capacity assay
2.5 HOCl scavenging capacity assay
2.6 ¹O₂ scavenging capacity assay
2.7 NO^· scavenging capacity assay
2.8 ONOO^- scavenging capacity assay
3 Scavenging capacity assays against stable, non-biological radicals and evaluation of total reduction capacity
3.1 Trolox equivalent antioxidant capaity assay
3.2 DPPH radical scavenging capacity assay
3.3 Ferric reducing antioxidant power assay
3.4 Total reducing capacity estimated by electrochemical methods
4 Nanoparticles-based antioxidant capacity assay
4.1 Antioxidant capacity assay based on the growth process of gold nanoshells
4.2 Antioxidant capacity assay utilizing gold nanoparticles
4.3 Electrochemiluminescence sensors for HO^· scavenging capacity assay based on CdSe quantum dots
4.4 Nanosensor for oxidative stress determination utilizing polymer spheres
4.5 Nanomaterials as antioxidants against harmful oxidative stress responses
4.6 Nanomaterials induced oxidative damage
5 Conclusions and outlook

Albumin is the chief circulating protein which plays more and more important roles as drug carriers in pharmaceutical uses nowadays. Two basic drug delivery technologies can be distinguished: albumin chemically coupling with drugs to form albumin-drug conjugates; encapsulation of drugs into albumin nanoparticles by physical interaction. Exogenous albumin chemically coupling with drugs, endogenous albumin binding prodrugs and therapeutic peptides or proteins binding to albumin are the three forms of albumin-drug conjugates which possess the ability of improving the pharmacokinetic properties of drugs. Physical integration with albumin is another albumin based drug delivery technology that can promote some characteristics of the drugs in vitro like enhancing their solubility and stability. This review gives an account of different drug delivery systems which make use of albumin as drug carriers with a focus on such systems that successfully solved the issues and have reached an advanced stage in their R & D processes. The application of albumin as drug carriers still has some defects including low drug load and week targeting features. Constantly a large number of modifications and reshaping of albumin are carried out in order to solve the problems, some of which are also involved in this review because the requirements of clinical developments.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Biology basis for albumin as drug carriers
3 Chemical conjugates with albumin as drug carriers
3.1 Exogenous albumin-drug conjugates
3.2 Endogenous albumin binding prodrugs
3.3 Albumin binding therapeutic peptides or proteins
4 Physical compounds with albumin as drug carriers
4.1 Albumin nanoparticles
4.2 Albumin microspheres
5 Modifications and reshaping of albumin
6 Summary and outlook

The environmental problems caused by e-waste dismantling have been continuously concerned around the world in recent years. About 70% of the global e-waste was imported to China through various routes according to statistical data by UNEP. As a country with high economy development, China generates amounts of e-waste itself. Guiyu in Guangdong Province and Taizhou in Zhejiang Province are two main e-waste dismantling areas in China. The processes of e-waste dismantling activities adopted are usually very primitive in these areas. Large numbers of persistent toxic substances (such as dioxin-like compounds, heavy metals and brominated flame retardants) were released to ambient environment during the dismantling processes, which had brought serious environmental pollution and health risk to the inhabitants lived in these regions. This paper reviewed the policies of e-waste recycling in China during the last decades, PTS pollution status in environment, and health risk assessment on human in e-waste dismantling areas in Guiyu and Taizhou. The future research areas on typical PTS and emerging pollutants in e-waste dismantling areas are also prospected.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Relevant policies on e-waste dismantling
3 Summary of e-waste dismantling area and activity
4 PTS pollution status in e-waste dismantling area
4.1 Pollution status in environment
4.2 Pollution status in human and health risk assessment
5 Conclusion and perspective

As the technological benefits of nanotechnology begin to rapidly move from laboratory to large-scale industrial application, release of nanomaterials to the environment including water, soil, sediment, and biosolids is inevitable. Concerns have been raised that the special properties of nanostructured materials that make them so attractive could potentially lead to unforeseen health risk or environmental hazards. The progress on the sources of nanoparticles, physicochemical properties and environmental or health risk is critically reviewed in this work. The environmental behavior of nanoparticles is analyzed when they are released into the aqueous environment. Toxicological effects of typical nanoparticles on bacteria, aquatic organisms, soil animals and mammalian cells are summarized. The possible toxicological mechanisms on these model microbes are then discussed. Furthermore, the relationships between toxicological effects of nanoparticles on model microbe and self-physicochemical/environmental factors are critically analyzed. The challenges and existing problems of nanotoxicity research are listed. Moreover, we also highlight the future research fields (such as quantitative structure activity relationship, QSAR) need regarding nanoparticles in the environment. It has been point out that more studies are urgently needed to scrutinize the characteristic methods of nanoscale materials and long-term research on the behavior and toxicity of nanoparticles in microbial community.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Properties, sources and toxicity of nanomaterials
2.1 Properties
2.2 Sources
2.3 Environmental behaviors
2.4 Toxicological effects
3 Toxicity mechanisms of nanomaterials
3.1 Effects of size-dependent
3.2 Effects of generated ROS oxidation damage and oxidative stress
3.3 Effects of dissolved metal ions
4 Influence factors
4.1 Characteristics
4.2 Environmental factors
5 Existing problems and prospect

Environmental contamination by toxic heavy metals is a significant global issue. Heavy metals removal from aqueous solution by algae, due to its good performance, low cost, environmental friendliness and wide applicability, have received increasing attention in recent years. In this work, the advances on algal heavy metals removal from aqueous solution are reviewed. The properties of algal cell wall constituents and their key functional groups are analyzed. The mechanisms of algal bioadsorption and bioaccumulation are then elaborated. Afterwards, the application of living and nonliving algae in heavy metal removal including their removal capacity and the effects of adsorption conditions are compared, and the selection criteria of algae are introduced. Finally, the existing deficiencies and suggestions on further study of the proposed algal bioremoval technology are discussed.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Algal cell wall constitution and their key functional groups for heavy metal removal
3 Mechanisms for algal bioremoval of heavy metals
3.1 Bioadsorption
3.2 Bioaccumulation
4 Application of living and nonliving algaes in heavy metal bioremoval
4.1 Usage of living algae
4.2 Usage of nonliving algae
4.3 Comparison of living and nonliving algae
5 Outlook